Disrupted beginnings: Neurodevelopmental outcomes of COVID-19 lockdowns in early childhood (Review)

Abstract

Early childhood development depends on stable routines, social interaction and responsive caregiving. The 2019 coronavirus disease pandemic disrupted these supports through lockdowns, reduced early-education access and elevated caregiver stress. The present review synthesized empirical studies (2020-2025) of children aged 0-5 years and found consistent evidence of modest increases in emotional and behavioral difficulties, particularly where caregiver stress or socioeconomic adversity was elevated. Cognitive, language and executive-function (EF) outcomes were found to be more heterogeneous and appeared most affected in the contexts of reduced stimulation or limited access to early learning, with EF processes showing particular sensitivity to stress-related and environmental disruptions. Biological findings (cortisol, DNA methylation and infant brain measures) showed a number of converging signals, particularly in higher-risk contexts, but remained preliminary given modest sample sizes, methodological heterogeneity and limited replication. Overall, this suggested that pandemic-related disruptions disproportionately affected children in vulnerable family contexts. Therefore, the present study suggested targeted caregiver mental-health support, preservation of early-education access during emergencies and longitudinal follow-up of high-risk cohorts.